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Working and ageing
72 Guidance and counselling for mature learners

as two sides of a continuum on which learning activities are situated (e.g.
Malcolm et al., 2003; Billett, 2001; Boekaerts and Minnaert, 1999). This implies
that employees do not participate in purely ʻformalʼ or ʻinformalʼ learning, but
rather in one or more activities that differ from one another with regard to their
degree of formality (Horstink, 2008). And according to Van der Heijden et al.
(2009), participation in a mix of formal and more informal HRD activities can
improve employability.
However, employees differ in their involvement in HRD activities. Funk
(2004) noticed that investments in labour market-relevant qualifications
continuously decrease as retirement approaches, and company policies are
hardly directed at improving older workersʼ employability through training and
development initiatives (see also De Lange et al., 2005). The level of
participation in these activities differs considerably between age groups
(Horstink, 2008; Shore et al., 2003; Forrier and Sels, 2003). Older workers
remain underrepresented in most forms of training and development (Klomp,
2010; Wognum and Bos-Horstink, 2010), although a faster decline in older
workersʼ participation is visible for more formal HRD activities compared to
more informal ones.
Although some literature shows no age differences with respect to
motivation to learn (De Lange et al., 2005), many studies report a negative
link between age and learning motivation (Colquitt et al., 2000; Lange, 2010).
Various studies also showed that older people prefer other learning activities
compared to their younger colleagues. Older people do not prefer formal
learning. Development by means of ʻlearning by doingʼ, on-the-job learning
and coaching seems more appropriate for their career development
(Rhebergen and Wognum, 1997). It also appears that content of learning plays
a clear role in older workers learning preferences. Wognum et al. (2006) found
that older pharmacistʼs assistants prefer workplace learning for acquiring
communication and interactive skills, but want to learn, for example, computer
skills, by attending courses.
Older employees, as well as their younger colleagues, could take
advantage of a work environment that supports and stimulates their learning
and development (De Lange et al., 2005). A healthy learning climate within
organisations seems to be an important organisational factor for improving
older and younger workersʼ employability (Van der Heijden et al., 2009).
According to Oosterbeek (1998), employeesʼ age appears to be an
important factor regarding ability to learn, because the potential benefits of
training vary directly in line with age. Skills acquired early on make later
learning easier, as Heckman (2000) stated. However, competence