Collectivist Counselling Theories and Practices: Diverse Asia
Original article in Hungarian
The author: Dr. habil. Tibor Bors Borbely-Pecze
There is no doubt about the diversity of the Asian continent. It is characterised by both very developed and rich countries (Japan, Singapore, South Korea, China) and emerging countries (e.g. Cambodia). It is a continent that is very diverse in terms of the languages used and the cultures that are present. India and China, two countries on the continent, account for 35% of the world’s population, nearly three billion people. Asia, with a population of nearly five billion, is the most populous continent on Earth, where the definitions of personal space, belonging to a community and individual career development are different from those that are used in Europe.
For some groups of Asian countries (OECD countries such as Japan and South Korea), we have quite detailed information from authors of these countries who tend to publish more and more works in English as well, while for large countries such as China and India, information is fragmentary or often comes to us through the interpretation of English and American colleagues. In the case of further states, e.g. the Philippines and many so-called micro-states of the Pacific, we only have some flashing memories from global conferences and some information told to us (Fiji, Samoa).
To help us understand the career guidance trends in this vast and highly heterogeneous region, we have the Asia Pacific Career Development Association (APCDA)[1] and its journal, edited by Brian Hutchison[2], nicknamed ‘the Global Career Guy’, who has made an undeniable contribution over the past decades. APCDA connects career development professionals working in or interested in the Asia–Pacific region and provides a global forum for sharing effective career development ideas, research and techniques in the Asia–Pacific region. The organisation's 2025 conference will be held in China.[3]
The two organisers of the 2023 Asian Career Guidance Symposium wrote, "Asia! The name itself conjures up images of expansion and diversity. Asia is the largest, most diverse and populous continent in the world. This symposium aimed to provide an overview of the development of career guidance and counselling in Asia, as well as the challenges and opportunities specific to the region and those shared with other regions. The Asian Symposium includes a wide range of presentations from China, Hong Kong, Macau, Taiwan, Singapore, India and Pakistan.” (Bakshi & Yuen, 2022).
Japan
In articles about Japan, the term ikigai (生 き 甲 斐, ‘the reason for existence’) usually comes up quickly. Translated into the world of career development, the term seeks the intersection of four themes, which also define meaningful career goals for the individual. In essence, you are trying to develop your own unique ‘place of happiness’ by considering what overlaps with four different elements: (1) what you love to do, (2) what you are good at, (3) what you can get paid for, and (4) what the world needs. Some explanations seek a link between a long, healthy life and career choices based on ikigai.
The Japanese believe that everyone has an ikigai—a reason for life. According to the inhabitants of a Japanese village, home to some of the oldest people in the world, finding this is the key to a happier and longer life. If we have a strong sense of ikigai—what we love, what we are good at, what we get paid for, and what the world needs—, it means that every day of our lives makes sense. This is the reason why we get up in the morning. This is also why many Japanese never really retire (in fact, there is no word in Japanese that means retirement in the same sense as in English): they stay active and do what they enjoy, because they have found the true purpose of life—to be always busy is happiness. (García & Miralles, 2017).
The downside of Japanese work culture and careerism is mental and physical overload. Japan is known for its excessive work culture and its commitment to work, which has led the world to see the country as ‘workaholic’. The ‘white-collar heroes’, or ‘salarymen’ as they are known locally, are credited with boosting the Japanese economy at the expense of their own lives (Widarahhesty, 2020). In this contradiction between (a) work that creates our sense of ikigai and (b) work that overloads us, the paradox of work as a useful activity serving the community (and not Euro-Atlantic self-expression) emerges as an interesting dichotomy.
In Japan, the concept of career was classically used to describe men’s careers (Dillon, 1983). The concept of ‘vocational counselling’ (shokugyo shido) was historically introduced in Japan in 1915. Shokugyo means vocation in Japanese, and shido means guidance. After the Meiji Restoration, this was the era of labour migration that happened due to the Industrial Revolution. Soju Irisawa translated the term professional/vocational counselling into Japanese and introduced the concept of professional counselling in his book Current Education in 1915 (Mimura, 2016). In 1927, the government introduced professional/vocational counselling into school education.
In 1950, the Korean War broke out, and the increasing volume of production during the war led to a boom and solid development of the Japanese economy. Human resources, especially skilled engineers and people with technological skills, were very much needed and therefore they were highly valued, creating a high demand for their employment. Thus, in 1957, the term career guidance appeared for the first time instead of vocational counselling. At the same time, the concept of career and career counselling referred to academic careers. In 1971, the Japanese Ministry of Education codified the concept of career guidance. This legislation stated that ‘career guidance’ is the process by which teachers guide and support individual pupils. Systematic and continuous support is provided to enable pupils to develop their own competences and attitudes in order to choose or plan a future career, to move on to employment or higher levels of education, and to adapt to their future adult life roles.
The follow-up of pupils is also an important activity for teachers. The main function of this activity is to assess whether graduates have dropped out of further education or have adapted to a new school, level of education or profession. If there is a problem with integration, teachers are responsible for supporting former pupils.
China
In 1916, Zhou Yichun, the then president of Tsinghua School (University), which was the predecessor of Tsinghua University, organised career development lectures and conducted a survey on students’ preferences in choosing majors and overseas universities (Xie, 2009). This date is also known as the institutionalised birth of career guidance in China. Career guidance in secondary education is still in an embryonic stage and lacks well-defined professional staff. Despite the lack of a uniform professional protocol and set of requirements, there are national standards for the provision of career guidance services in higher education. One of these is the national standard of professions: it is entitled Expectations of Career Guidance Professionals, it was published in 1999 and revised in 2005 by the Ministry of Labour and Social Security.
Chinese culture has a collectivist orientation, which is also important for career guidance theory and practice, which are developing under Western influence. Chinese culture, values and beliefs also influence the career choices of Chinese students and the career aspirations of Chinese workers. In China, the family structure is very clear and strict, and people respect authority. Confucian values, such as ‘filial piety’, which favour the individuals’ humility and good behaviour, are also strong today, which partly explains the negative attitude towards career counselling (Shao, 2021).
‘Saving face’ (our appearance and behaviour in front of others) is a significant cultural value and influences career choice, career development and work culture in China. It refers to social status, reputation and dignity. Keeping their image is crucial for both individuals and organisations. Chinese professionals try to avoid embarrassment or loss of image for themselves or others. The emphasis on saving ‘face’ has an impact on the dynamics of communication, as criticism or confrontation can be approached indirectly in order to preserve harmony and avoid public shame.
In Chinese work culture, building and maintaining relationships, known as guanxi, is highly valued. Guanxi refers to a network of personal connections and relationships which facilitates business interactions and collaboration. Trust, mutual understanding, and building relationships with staff, customers and business partners are essential for successful cooperation in China. Investing time and effort in building strong guanxi can lead to better business opportunities and a deeper understanding of the local business environment. The Chinese work culture is often associated with a high-pressure environment, characterised by long working hours and intense commitment to work. The term ‘996’ refers to the informal expectation to work from 9 a.m. to 9 p.m. six days a week. This demanding work schedule can lead to increased stress levels, fatigue and limited time for personal activities. Chinese professionals often face the challenge of balancing their professional responsibilities with their personal well-being.
In my literature review (it could easily be due to the English language source review), I could not find any career development theory that was a domestic Chinese theory based on the challenges of modern job markets and careers and the international characteristics of career orientation. There is much evidence of the adoption of Euro-Atlantic models. The globally-listed works of Pop, Savickas, Holland, etc., appear frequently in English-language literature written by Chinese people. The resurgence of Confucianism is also clear: “Confucianism has been shaping China for more than two millennia: the words of the Master offer guidance to ordinary people and to those in power alike.” (Almády, 2013). Its teachings are inescapable in collective-based work organisation and career guidance from an external perspective; it seems to be a professional challenge (similar to Japan and South Korea) to create a work-life balance, the Chinese adaptation of counselling models to support the decent work agenda, or to develop their own Chinese methods.
India
By 2020, India will have become the country with the youngest age composition in the world. The average age is just 29, and it accounts for around 28% of the world’s workforce. As in countries across the African continent, providing the growing young population with work will remain a challenge in India for a long time to come. This means that India is looking at career orientation from a fundamentally different demographic perspective than the ageing Japan, South Korea or China, the neighbouring other giant.
India is making quite considerable efforts to develop its own career guidance theory and practice. Jiva[4] जीव (transcripted ‘dzsíva’ in Hungarian and meaning living) is a career guidance system developed for non-Western cultures, with a special focus on India. The intervention has a strong research base and has been developed in two phases with the intention of bringing career and livelihood planning into the national mainstream. As part of this effort, the NGO developing the model also publishes an English-language journal, entitled The Indian Journal of Career and Livelihood Planning (IJCLP)[5]. Gideon Arulmani, the founder of the Bengaluru (Bangalore) Foundation, is the main mentor of the consultancy model, which has been adapted to the Indian context.
In common speech, livelihoods are associated with survival needs and are thought to be practised by those in lower income brackets, such as farmers, artisans and skilled workers, especially in rural areas. A career, on the other hand, is more strongly linked to urban life and the middle and upper classes, and is portrayed as offering better opportunities and higher incomes. Formal education (school and higher education) is seen as a gateway to a career, while the traditional, non-formal practice of skills transfer is linked to livelihoods. However, livelihoods are a reality in many cultures. Yet, a common tendency among career development professionals is to replace livelihood practices with career orientation (Arulmani, 2014). Arulmani and the Jiva Foundation conclude that this is a bad practice.
The word jiva means ‘life’ in most Indian languages. The jiva approach to career counselling is based on the premise that a healthy career is intrinsically linked to one’s life. A career is not just a job—it is a collection of jobs and occupations that exploit our potential and give us deep satisfaction. A career is something you spend a lifetime doing. In this sense, a career is an extension of our lives. The jiva is based on four career development values interpreted from the viewpoint of Asian cultures.
The jiva spiral means a non-linear approach to career development. Ancient Indian philosophy presents a cyclical approach to life. Based on this principle, jiva uses the image of a spiral to describe development. During the jiva workshop, children will learn that nature is full of examples of spirals, from the structure of galaxies to the blossoming of a rosebud. Through various jiva activities, children discuss the fact that a career rarely develops in a linear and sequential way. It has its ups and downs and evolves with the individual.
As life plays out, you often return to where you started, but in a qualitatively different way: you become older and more mature. You can move from the path you were on to a related but different one.[6] Indian philosophy encourages the individual to practice objectivity and lack of passion (nishkama) when making (career) decisions. Jiva interprets this as a way of pointing out that the nature of today’s economic development offers countless opportunities for young people in India. This does not mean that just because an opportunity exists, it should be seized. Career development requires the ability to weigh up the pros and cons and then accept or reject them.
During a jiva workshop, students consider how well a particular option or educational pathway matches their interests and abilities. Does an opportunity lead to a job, or does it open the door to a real career?
Finding answers to these questions is key to building a healthy career. The Jiva lays the foundations for students to think critically about their career choices.
In India, the state (or more specifically the central government and the states) has also made a lot of progress in the last decade in developing at least basic job search and career counselling services. In July 2015, the government of India launched the country’s new online career development/career counselling platform called National Career Service (NCS)[7]. The NCS has been designed in collaboration with Indian states (provinces), drawing on their experience of employment services and private job portals. The NCS has more than 27,000 career counsellors. Their main aim is to provide career choice/orientation advice that reaches young people.
Reference literature
Borbély Pecze, T. B. (2025). Career and career guidance beyond the Euro-Atlantic culture. Opus Et Educatio, 12(1). https://doi.org/10.3311/ope.40136
Related literature
Almády, B. (2013). The rebirth of Confucianism in modern China “Near and Far” III. From the presentations of the annual conference of the Eötvös Collegium Oriental Studies Workshop, Budapest, pp. 169–178. Url: https://edit.elte.hu/xmlui/bitstream/handle/10831/34899/Kozel_Tavol_III_Almady_Bertalan_p_169-178.pdf full volume: https://terebess.hu/keletkultinfo/Mohamed-elkuldese.pdf
Arulmani, G. (2014). Career guidance and livelihood planning. Indian Journal of Career and Livelihood Planning, 3, pp. 9–11.
Arulmani, G. & Kumar, S. & Shresta S. & Viray M. & Aravind S. (myself). The Cultural Preparedness Perspective of Career Development Jiva Foundation URL: https://jivacareer.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/11/Lecture-9A-Cultural-Preparedness.pdf
Bakshi, A. J., & Yuen, M. (2022). Counselling and career guidance in Asia. British Journal of Guidance & Counselling, 50(6), pp. 813–817. https://doi.org/10.1080/03069885.2023.2165037
Dillon, L. (1983). Career development in Japan: Its relationship to Japanese productivity. Journal of Career Education, 10(1), pp. 22–26. https://doi.org/10.1177/089484538301000103
García, H. & Miralles, F. (2017). Ikigai: The Japanese Secret to a Long and Happy Life. Penguin Books ISBN 978-0143130727
Mimura, T. (2016). Vocational Guidance, Career Guidance, and Career Education phases in Japan.
Waseda University Graduate School of Education Bulletin, 2016 (3) 19-34. Url: https://waseda.repo.nii.ac.jp/records/10756
Shao, H (2021). Career Considerations When Working with Chinese International Students Asia Pacific Career Development Journal Vol.6: No1, pp 101 – 110 Url: https://asiapacificcda.org/Resources/APCDJ/A0006_1_07.pdf
Xie, C. (2009). Zhuang Zexuan and modern vocational guidance movement. Vocational and Technical Education, 59(3), pp. 73–77.
Widarahhesty, Y. (2020). Otsukaresamadeshita A Critical Analysis of Japan’s Toxic Work Culture. WILAYAH: The International Journal of East Asian Studies, 9(1), pp. 32–47. https://doi.org/10.22452/IJEAS.vol9no1.3
[1] https://asiapacificcda.org/
[2] https://www.globalcareerguy.com/
[3] https://asiapacificcda.org/2025-conference/
[5] https://jivacareer.org/?page_id=2253
[6] https://jivacareer.org/?page_id=328
[7] https://www.ncs.gov.in/Pages/default.aspx
