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CHAPTER 9
Changing patterns of guidance, learning and careers of older workers in Europe 183

(e) career orientation: is provision linked to a clear career orientation in that
it is linked to an individualʼs career goals directly or else was helpful in
developing skills which were also helpful for career management
purposes and does it fit with an individualʼs clear career narrative (about
ʻbecomingʼ)?
Career guidance practitioners should also recognise complementarity of
different forms of learning in support of skill development. Our research
findings provided a strong endorsement for complementarity of learning
through engaging with challenging work and institutionalised learning which
is able to help individuals look beyond their immediate context. Such
complementary learning has underpinned many apprenticeship systems,
sandwich degrees and much professional training. However, we found many
examples of the value for individuals when they applied such modes of
alternance learning across the life course: that is, where learning was
predominantly work-based but with periods of institutionalised learning
interspersed. Learning through challenging work alone may be insufficient and
other forms of learning may be necessary to help the employee make a
quantum leap in their broader understanding of a particular field.
Quality of work remains a key factor in determining the extent of continuing
learning and skills development. Where individuals are engaged in challenging
work they are likely to have opportunities for significant development from
learning while working. However, a companyʼs field of operation, future
horizons, product market strategy and organisation of work may all place
constraints on the extent to which workplaces offer ʻexpansive learning
environments.ʼ Where a company offers only limited opportunities for
substantive learning while working efforts to encourage employers to offer
additional training have had only limited success, not least because employers
may think employees would then be more likely to leave. Therefore, public
policy should perhaps focus on giving workers entitlements to career guidance
and further learning opportunities.
Continuing vocational training development could also be linked to the
notion developed by Sen (1999) of the importance of developing individual
capabilities in a broader sense. Applying this idea to skill development the
ultimate goal is to increase the freedom for individuals to exercise greater
control over their own lives (in relation to what they value being or doing): this
includes expanding opportunities to access knowledge, meaningful work,
significant relationships and exercise self-direction. Other capabilities (ways
of being and doing) could benefit from engagement with other forms of
education and training.