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CHAPTER 3
Demographic changes and challenges in Europe with special focus on Germany 53

selectively affect only older employees or relatively low-skilled/
unskilled employees. Push could also be exercised if an employer
offers a ʻgolden handshakeʼ, a lump sum of money as compensation
for dismissal. Instead of money, the enterprise might offer paid
continuing vocational education and training, giving fair chances of
finding a satisfactory new job. A further possibility is the enterprise
offering permanent employment, but on condition of ʻdown gradingʼ
(as opposed to promotion), implying either worsening job conditions
or reduced wage and esteem (or both) – which, if rejected, would
function as a push factor. Summing up, decisive push factors relate
to the inability to maintain a job, which is satisfying, acceptable
and/or suitable. However, in any of these cases, push factors
depend to a high degree on corporate personnel policy strategies.

Pull Pull is seen, in general, as a result of several factors making it
economically possible to withdraw from the labour market – where
ʻpossibleʼ depends upon age, health conditions and income level
compared to the income expected from continued labour-market
participation. Reduction of the pull factor is on the agenda in most
European countries, either by rising the pension age and curtailing
early exit arrangements, by sharpening definitions of disability or
by reducing income compensation for those leaving the labour
market. Many proposals for reforms in European countries are
directed towards making these conditions less favourable in
general. Pull might also be reduced if postponing retirement
several years into the future would result in a lump sum of money
and higher level of early retirement wage compensation for the
last few years until ʻnormalʼ retirement age. Pull could also be
related to the degree to which job satisfaction, the working
environment and job conditions fulfil (and will continue to fulfil) the
preferences of the individual considering continuing or retiring
from work. Of course, these individual preferences are influenced
by an individualʼs former education and socialisation, including
their working life biography – and are thereby related to
socioeconomic situations.

Jump An important dimension of jump forces is the individual trade-off
between work and leisure time. If individual living conditions offer
much more interesting and/or satisfactory activities and